Understandanding the Role of the Social Care Worker

1.Understand working relationships in a care setting.1.1 Explain how working relationships are different from a personal relationship; a working relationship is different because of boundaries, in a personal relationship you have a different approach to your partner than you would to your colleague.1.2 Describe different working relationships in a social care setting; you work with a varierty of different people in the work settings; i.e doctors, family members and colleagues.You work with a doctor when an individual becomes ill or has a fall. You work with family members to let them know about their family member in your care. You work with colleagues as part of the job to care for a large number of indviduals.2 Understand the importance of working in ways that are agreed with the employer.2.1 Describe why it is important to adhere to the agreed scope of the job role;It is important to adhere to the agreed ways of the job role set by the employer as this sets out boundaries in your job role, enables you to know your role and responsibilities. Knowing your own level of competence and skills, knowing your job description.2.2 Outline what is meant by ‘agreed ways of working'; By following the companies policies and procedures based on safety guidelines.2.3 Explain the importance of full and up to-date details of agreed ways of working; By recieving a up to-date job description and reading it you know if you are the right person for the job. You would know if you had the right qualifications and experience the company is looking for and you would know what they expected from yourself.3 Understand the importance of working in partnership with others3.1 Explaine why it is important to work in partnership with others; It is important because if nobody worked in partnership the nobody in the care setting would know how to communicate and pass on information on each individual and they would be less confident in the work place.3.2 Identify ways of working that ca n help improve partnership working; Team work. Questionaires can increaae communication skills. Ringing other landings. Make what you say clear so you can get your point across.3.3 Identify skills and approaches needed for resolving conflicts; The ability to be quiet an listen. To be able to listen to other peoples points and opinions and to be considerate of them.3.4 Explain how and when to access support and advice about; Partnership working: in the workplace generally speaking, support and advice about working through and learning how to resolve conflicts would come from a person with more experience in the company such as head of department.Resolving conflicts: openly discuss differences in a calm and rational manner. For example, when having heated professional discussions with colleagues avoid rising to challenges or suggestions that you are incorrect or ask colleagues to listen to you and respect your opinions, but also respect their opinions.

Do Nursing Interventions Have an Impact on Cancer Patients? Essay

Critical Appraisal is a means of which research data is evaluated and examined for the validity and quality of individual studies after the elimination of studies that do not contribute to determining current best evidence (Hamric, Hanson, Tracy, & O’Grady, 2014). This evaluation can be used to eliminate studies that do not meet criteria for meta-analysis. Critical Appraisal is used to help people develop certain skills to make sense of available scientific research evidence based on the validity, results, and relevance. It consist of a systematic process through which the strengths and weaknesses of a research study can be identified (Young ; Solomon, 2009). The basis for my beginning research has been focused around home care patients and since I have a background of working on an oncology floor I have decided to further explore cancer research for homecare patients. This paper is a review of both quantitative and qualitative research completed in the efficacy of treating cancer patients in the home setting. The burning question is â€Å"Do nursing interventions implemented in the home setting improve the quality of life for cancer patients†? Upon completion of this assignment I hope to gain a general understanding of what a critical appraisal is. In addition, a basic knowledge of the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative review will be established. Cancer is a disease caused by the uncontrolled division and growth of abnormal cells in the body. If a cell is cancerous it is referred to as a malignant cell. According to World Health Organization (WHO) Cancer represents 30% of the burden posed by non-communicable diseases in the Region of the Americas (Luciana, Cabanes, Prieto-Lara, ; Gawryszewski, 2013). Research articles presented in the paper assess whether or not interventions implemented within the home or outpatient setting have a positive or negative impact on physical endurance and the quality of life of a cancer patient. Loss of physical function is one of the most distressing symptoms of cancer patients’ leading to additional emotional and psychological breakdown (Lowe, Watanabe, Baracos, ; Courneya, 2013). Purpose The purpose of this paper is to take levels of evidence in a meta-synthesis (qualitative) review as well as a meta-analysis (quantitative) review and critically evaluate the information. The findings for these methods are taken from multiple studies, combined, and analyzed statistically. A meta-synthesis involves integrating qualitative research findings on a specific topic that are themselves interpretive syntheses of narrative information (Polit ; Beck, 2012). Qualitative designs are used best to understand patients’ experiences, attitudes, and beliefs (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). Meta-analysis is a method of integrating quantitative findings statistically (Polit ; Beck, 2012). Three questions in particular are asked when a quantitative or qualitative study is appraised, they generally are: What are the results? Are the results of the study valid? How can the results be applied in the identified case? Critical Appraisal: Quantitative Study Quantitative studies are used for evaluating the effectiveness and safety of nursing interventions, the accuracy and precision of nursing assessment measures or diagnostic tests, the strength of causal relationships, and the cost-effectiveness of nursing interventions (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). The selected quantitative article for critical appraisal is titled â€Å"Home-based functional walking program for advanced cancer patients receiving palliative care: a case series†. This article presented a clearly focused research question related to evaluating how physical activity interventions implemented in the home or outpatient setting impact a cancer patients’ quality of life. The purpose of this study was to examine the initial development and pilot testing of a physical activity intervention in patients with advanced stage cancer receiving palliative care (Lowe, Watanabe, Baracos, ; Courneya, 2013). Researchers wanted to see if a home based walking program would help to decrease the rates of declining physical function in advanced stage cancer patients or add to the quality of life for these patients. Methods and Results This research study was conducted using qualifying participants in an outpatient or homecare setting receiving palliative care. This was a trial study in which participants were not randomized. Participants meeting study criteria were identified by researchers and consent to participate in the study was obtained by all participants before trial monitoring began. Inclusion criteria required subjects to be age 18 years or older, english speaking, have the cognitive ability to participate, and to have a diagnosis of progressive, incurable and locally recurrent or metastatic cancer and receiving palliative care. Nine adult cancer patients were chosen for this study all residing either in a palliative home care environment. By the time baseline information was taken three participants dropped out of the program due to hospitalization or feeling overwhelmed, another three left the study due to severe symptoms leaving three remaining participants to complete the program. The sample consisted of two men and one woman with the median age of 55. This physical activity program was monitored over the course of six weeks. A quasi-experimental pilot study design was used to provide preliminary data of the six week physical activity program among advanced stage cancer patients. The quasi-experimental design can be descriptive or correlational and takes place when the researcher actively manipulates the independent variable to see the effect on the dependent variable (Zaccagnini ; White, 2011). The interventions used was a modified home based functional walking program combined with muscle strengthening excercises. Duration and intensity was individually set for each participant based on baseline results of a physical function test. Previous surveys of patients with advanced stage cancer presented findings with a median survival of 104 days. Findings of this quantitative study revealed that post intervention scores showed that all three participants showed worsening symptoms and fatigue scores by the end of the six week home-based walking program. Two of the three participants passed away within 90 days of completing the program. Although study results demonstrated challenges associated with physical activity interventions in advanced stage cancer patients, no definitive proof was uncovered showing improvement in the quality of life for advanced stage cancer patients. Critical Appraisal: Qualitative Study Quanlitative study designs are well-suited for helping to understand the illness experience (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). The selected qualitative study article for critical appraisal was titled â€Å"Early support visits by district nurses to cancer patients at home: A multi-perspective qualitative study†, posed a clearly focused research question. Multi-perspective study can be defined as combining multiple viewpoints, representations and roles. Many palliative care patients spend most of their final days at home with caregivers and some support healthcare staff. It is said that nurses make frequent support visits to patients, yet there is still very little known about what is actually provided by visiting nurses to homecare palliative patients and their caregivers. The purpose of this qualitative study was to address limitations of previous studies of reported practice by taking a multi-perspective approach, along with views of nurses, patients, and caregivers and directly observing and reporting findings (Griffiths, Ewing, ; Rogers, 2012). Participants were studied in focus groups. This study was developed to help present findings that explored how district nurses early support visits to advanced stage cancer patients is both described and carried out. Previous studies identified have been limited to the reports of practice by nurses. With this study researchers were able to observe interactions between nurse, patient, and caregivers during home visits in order to record findings. This observation by researchers was then used to identify how home visits were conducted and what they entailed. Methods and Results This research study was completed using a focus group design method. The study sample included a total of 77 participants, 10 palliative care patients (seven women, three men), nine caregivers (five spouses, four daughters), and 58 nurses. Of these 58 nurses 28 were leaders and 30 were staff nurses. The age range of the 10 patients was 53-85 with a median age of 72. All of the patients had a diagnosis of various advanced staged cancer. Data was collected by experienced qualitative researchers that worked as community nurses. The setting for this study took place in the North West (urban), and South East (rural) regions of England. Prior to data collection ethical approval was granted and participants provided written consent. Each focus group session lasted from 60-90 minutes. Researchers began recruitment by making observations of visits, with each patient receiving two observation visits. Patients and caregivers were interviewed both before and after observations in order to retrieve needed background information for research. Upon collection and analysis of data audio recordings were used during home visits. Findings revealed that the nurses that participated in this study showed great value for palliative care. There were four types of visits described: assessment of physical care needs, assessment and delivery of practical help, and two cross cuttig themes of information giving and enabling talk. Detailed observations of these visits with interviews were presented from the nurses in the assessment of physical care needs and while nurses reported carrying out early support visits there was difficulty in articulating the content covered in these visist. In the assessment and delivery of practical help it was noted by nurses that physical needs dominated visits but this was mostly a review of what patients needed as far as equipment, etc. Research findings show that this particular study can be applied to patient care by educating support staff that early support visits could potentially play a part in reducing costly hospital admissions. Patients also reported a decrease in stress levels with support from visiting nurses. Overall this multi-perspective approach provided new insights about support visits by district nurses. Conclusion Qualitative and quantitative research methods make different contributions to knowledge (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). Critical appraisal is an essential part of evidenced-based research and its methods help to form a portion of the systematic review process. It is the analysis of findings that allows the reader to form an opinion about the validity and reliability that such research can be used in patient practice. This process enables the reader to assess the study’s usefulness and whether or not the findings are trustworthy (Young ; Solomon, 2009). Teamwork is an essential part to providing palliative home care and nurse play a vital role (Griffiths, Ewing, ; Rogers, 2012). Although earlier studies have found that physical activity interventions in early stage cancer patients present positive results, that has not been confirmed in patients with advanced stage cancer and further research will be required. Overall I found that the results presented in the quantitative study were not valid due to lack of identifiable evidence shown. While reviewing the qualitative study I found  that the sample size was not large enough to provide a definitive answer as to whether this study provided valid results. When referring to the burning question I think that it has been shown that to a certain point nursing interventions implemented in the home such as adding physical activity and nursing support visits to cancer patients’ agenda can positively affect the patient’s quality of life. When searching for effective interventions researchers must always remember to incorporate patient preferences in their studies because this will help to enhance both recruitment and adherence.

1984 – a dystopian novel

1984 is a dystopian novel about the society of the future. Writing in 1948, he images Britain forty years in the future as a totalitarian dictatorship which combines elements of both Communism and Fascism in a powerful, omniscient police-state, based on terror. The story takes place in a totalitarian state called Oceania. The world has been divided up by Oceania and two other states, Eastasia and Eurasia. The post-war world is governed by power groups alternatively at war with one another. After the revolution, the establishment has been replaced by a dictatorship, whose leader is BB. In his features and look, BB clearly recalls Stalin, and the fact that his face is depicted everywhere is a denunciation of the cult of personality, typical in all dictatorships. Trying to control the thoughts of every citizen, the authorities rewrite history, changing events. The hero, Winston Smith, is an intellectual and rebels against this world and begins to dream of destroying the system. The description of London, capital of Oceania, in the first chapter of the book, is similar to wartime London. The environment recalls bomb-damaged London in 1948. The influence of WW2 is clearly evident; it is a nightmare that still haunts the population. Personal freedom is restricted because Oceania is in a permanent state of war and everyone is potentially a traitor. The only chance of survival is by showing obedience to the Party's orthodoxy and complete devotion to the cult of BB. Everybody is constantly watched and the use of language modified to try and crush independent, individual, autonomous thought, so that the Party will at last be in control of the whole inner being of every man. Winston Smith (whose name is a symbol: Winston stands for Churchill, and Smith is a common surname, making him a stereotype of every man) works for the Ministry of Truth, but he doesn't accept its fanatic attitude so he keeps a diary and falls in love with a girl called Julia. He makes friend with O'Brien, his superior in the Ministry of Truth, because he believes he is against the system as well. However, O'Brien turns out to be a party man who has Winston captured. Winston is the last man in BB's dictatorship who tries to keep control of his inner self, but he is arrested because his love story to Julia is illegal and mentally and physically tortured until he loses his mental integrity. When he is rehabilitated and finally released he has been turned into a robot just like all the others. He has not only understood and accepted party doctrine, he has even come to love Big Brother. The structure of the novel recalls a tragedy because it is divided into three parts: in Part 1, Winsto n tries to be free, in Part 2, when he is about to fulfil his dream, his hopes are crushed, and in Part 3, he surrenders to the system and loses his humanity. Orwell gives a description of the political system of totalitarianism. In 1984 he described the methods used to control thought, to invade privacy and break down personal resistance. The totalitarian state tries to control the thoughts of citizens through language to limit the danger of independent thought. The use of language in 1984 is especially important because Orwell shows how every concept is turned into its exact opposite by the Party, bringing out a satiric effect and tragic irony. So the Ministry of Truth only tells lies, the Ministry of Peace is concerned with war and the language is contracted, taking out all creativity from its use, much as it happens today with mobile phones. The three irrational slogans of the Party are particularly meaningful because they reveal the ideals the party is based on, thought control and reversal of concepts. Orwell is concerned with the function of political language and shows that in Oceania words are so corrupted that they now mean their opposite. This implies that once language is controlled anything that the Party doesn't approve is impossible. Thus reality is distorted and these distortions alter the human perception of the truth. This is similarly the danger hidden in mass media, whose power pervades modern society. Mass media control communication and impose a global view on all aspects of everyday life. That is why the control of mass media is important for the political party in power, because through mass media they can create consensus and alters thought so that everybody comes to think and desire what the Party wants them to think and desire. Therefore communication becomes manipulation and creates fear, as the dominant faces of BB in posters seem to say. BB IS WATCHING YOU means that everybody is controlled and can't escape. People are alienated, deprived of desires, individuality and interpersonal relationship, so that they can't but be obedient to the ruling party. So the media in the world created by Orwell in 1984 have a double function: to control human thought so that it comes to comply with the Party's wish and keep watch on people everywhere and at any time. Subject to constant surveillance, citizens never try to rebel or escape. Terror is used to monitor and control people's thoughts, feelings and actions. Orwell was politically committed and 1984 shows how precious and fragile human freedom is. In a period of social unrest, unemployment, economic depression and Nazi expansion, he turned to left-wing ideals and he went to fight for the Republican forces in the Spanish war. The experience in Spain made him aware of the political threats that could destroy left-wing ideals; he was horrified of the result of Realpolitik. He was particularly concerned with the tragic development of communist ideals through Stalin's dictatorship in the USSR. Orwell was disappointed by Socialism and believed that the writer should be independent. As a matter of fact, though he was a socialist, he was very critical of a Socialism which was detached from the reality and the needs of the working class it is supposed to represent. One of the most outstanding features is the close connection between his political views and his writing. Orwell believed that the writer was a spokesman for the moral conscience of society and his duty was to denounce social evils. The influence of Dickens is shown in his choice of social themes and the use of realistic language because he used a simple, direct style. He believed in tolerance and justice and warned against the dangers of totalitarianism and thought control. He criticized totalitarianism, warning against the violation of personal freedom. 1984 shows a prophetic picture of the dangers caused by totalitarian dictatorships which annihilate individuality and justice. He wanted to warn readers against tyranny. The world described in 1984 is a nightmare. The party has absolute control, rebellion is punished with prison and torture. He showed his concern for the quality of life, human dignity and creativity; in his opinion, these qualities are threatened by the prevailing trend in modern society, where mass media control human actions, tastes and choices. He had a pessimistic view of the masses, because he believed they could be easily manipulated through language. BB's dictatorship controlled thought, invaded personal privacy through microphones and tele-screens and broke down all attempts at resisting by brain-washing people. Moreover the strategies of the Party control not only the present and the future but also the past, by re-writing history. Winston's job in the Ministry of Truth is to alter historical records to eliminate all memories of past events and adapt them to party policy when they are inconsistent with party doctrine. Orwell's assumption is that a totalitarian state controls the thought of citizens through language to limit the dangers of independent thought. This is still true today because mass media are potentially dangerous, as they break down individuality and independent ideas by crushing imagination with conformity. 1984 is a picture of how the political system can suppress individuality and make man inhuman. Through science fiction he depicts a future world in such a realistic way as to make it very credible. The main character's will and body are broken into total submission, leaving no hope in the future of freedom, non-conformism and use of individual reason. Orwell's final conclusion of 1984's nightmarish plot is that totalitarian powers destroy human nature and men are hopelessly overwhelmed by oppressive political forces.

Juvenile Delinquency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Juvenile Delinquency - Essay Example Both the individual and the society are to be blamed for crime commission because as much as an individual may or may not wish to commit a crime, there must be some reasons for him to do so, most of which are based on social issues. Juvenile delinquency can be explained using different theories that try to illustrate why minors engage in illegal behaviors. Theories that have been put forth to support the concept of why minors engage in criminal activities includes differential association theory, strain theory, rational choice theory, and labeling theory (Schmalleger, 2010). I believe rational choice theory can be used to explain the behaviors of young offenders. This theory is based upon the argument that every person has a capability of using his intelligent thinking when committing any crime. Similarly, social behavior is an antagonism of a sequence of behavioral acts that are influenced by rational people. This indicates that Justin’s criminal acts are because of particular beliefs and values of the society. Further, juveniles often calculate the gains or the costs to be incurred when they engage in criminal activity (Schmalleger, 2010). Due to this, they decide to commit the crime because there is a possibility to maximize the gains or the general utility process. For instance, they decide to participate in gang activity in order to get money to assist their families (Schmalleger, 2010). There is a supposition that all actors are quite conscious of the means and the values needed to carry out a crime. They first gather, organize, and analyze data so that they can come up with the most practical options. They examine the choices available around them, a process that is then interpreted into the whole society. In this case, it is imperative that Justin is advised that criminal behaviors are illegal and if caught, the consequences are severe. With this in

Leadership paper 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Leadership paper 2 - Essay Example The personal life, challenges and opportunities also affect the professional life, vision and career development. The personal challenges that I face involve lack of time for the family members and inappropriate time to socialize and active participation in physical and mental activities. These challenges that I face, due to tight schedule of my job and my undue precedence to the professional career, are disrupting my personal life. Unstable personal life affects the professional career badly and hence, before going any further in the development of my professional life I would need to resolve the personal life issues keeping the professional values and visions under consideration. My Values: Basing the discussion on the LPI feedback, the most important trait according to my leadership skills is to treat others with dignity and respect. Employees working under my control, hence, are encouraged to put forward their ideas without any fear of embarrassment or humiliating behavior from t he management side including me. My values involve firm commitment and fulfillment of my promises which act as a modeling behavior for the employees. Employees spend more time observing the leaders’ behavior on how he/she acts in certain circumstances and respond to the commitments. A responsive, more responsible and committed leader inspires the visions and actions of the taskforce. I also believe in developing a cooperative environment where workers are encouraged to ponder over different issues, share their thoughts and implement the change. The fact that their ideas and views are respected and implemented if they are appropriate, integrate them more in the organization and they feel more relaxed and satisfied with the working environment. This leadership trait also enables the workers to trust the leader, act upon his decisions and understand the underlying factors of the decision which are beneficial for the firm and/or the performance of the group. My leadership values include the communication about group aspirations often in the daily working environment. This enables the employees keep their focus on achieving the group goals rather than achieving individual targets which collides with the group targets. Hence, proper communication of the targets and motivation to achieve them as a group helps achieving those targets by inspiring the group members’ vision and point of views about the work delegated to them. The LPI also suggests that seeking challenging opportunities to test and polish skills is also one of the traits that I adopt as a leader. Challenges and adverse situations enable the person think critically, evaluate, assess and implement. The challenging tasks and situations help making the group more integrated and devoted. The whole group is equally involved in tackling the difficult situation, hence creating a more firm and goal oriented taskforce. This further helps in realizing the true potentials of the group members and their involvement and interest in achieving the group goals. In addition to this, my values involve proper assessment of the group progress and communicate the results with the group to encourage them on improvement and discourage the traits which may hinder the success of the

What problems Adults with dementia face in palliative care Essay

What problems Adults with dementia face in palliative care - Essay Example Using these findings in clinical practice can make the lives of these patients much better. For the same reason, it is important to be able to use an important clinical research appraisal tool which can help maximize the benefits gained from doing such research. This includes the McMaster’s Critical Review Form for Qualitative Studies, which will be used in the review below. Evidently, there are a number of ways in which a research paper can benefit the palliative care nursing staff and the patients who receive this care, and qualitative information can be extremely useful for receiving feedback on this care (Baxter & Jack, 2008). However, there are sometimes issues which need to be addressed in the research before incorporating it into current practice, which is why the McMaster’s Critical Review Form can be so useful in assessing suitability. ... The three papers that have been chosen to review using the McMaster’s tool are all qualitative, as this gives an interesting and more personal look into the challenges that face those working with dementia patients in palliative care (Baxter & Jack, 2008). It allows researchers to see more accurately the thoughts that are going through people’s head, and to group these into common themes (Sale et al, 2002), without the need for pressurizing scales that provide quantitative data. Challenges for professional care of advanced dementia (Chang et al, 2009) covers the challenges identified by professional health workers when caring for those with dementia in a palliative care environment. This research used small focus groups and individual interviews to gather information about the work that these people do with patients suffering from dementia. Barriers and facilitators to the receipt of palliative care for people with dementia: The views of medical and nursing staff (Ryan et al, 2012) covers UK practitioners who offer end-of-life care to those with dementia in an attempt to understand the issues that these workers may have in providing this care. Again, this research was done using a mixture of focus groups and individual interviews to gather relevant data. Finally, Dying well with dementia: qualitative examination of end-of-life care (Lawrence et al, 2011) also targets the issues that surround end-of-life palliative care for those with dementia, identifying that this type of palliative care can be quite different from that offered to those with other chronic conditions. This time, the data was carried out using interviews of both bereaved

Unit 3 Discussion Board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Unit 3 Discussion Board - Essay Example our seafood products so that not only we provide tasty sea food but also the healthy and fresh food which can be taken as an alternative to the mainstream food supplies. Based on this, our core strategies include value proposition as well as the product positioning. As discussed our main focus will be on creating value added seafood products therefore based on this proposition, we intend to add value to the processed seafood by making various seafood dishes and prepare them as ready to cook products. It is because of this fact that we are planning to sell fresh and preserved Fish, Frozen seafood, Processed and Canned Seafood, Preserved and Frozen oven ready fish dishes for modern food service. The value proposition in this whole product will be the perceived health benefits which a customer can enjoy by eating white meat. Backed by latest research, we will market our product based on the idea that eating seafood is not only healthy but it can also provide great taste when cooked and processed in our way. Regarding the product positioning, as discussed earlier that we are intending to target the hospitality sector of UAE therefore, there will be two channels involved in carrying out our strategy. Firstly, we will target the hotels which will be selling our product and secondly, we intend to open our own stores cum restaurants which will be used to sell our product range. Since this will be an international venture and product positioning in international market require that products can be evoked and distributed as bundles of attribute capable of generating benefits for the customer (Johansson, 1985) therefore we believe that our product will include an intangible perceived benefits to the customer in terms of taste and healthy

Ploicy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Ploicy - Research Paper Example icial system and based on constitution that is intended for public good while a policy is set up by policy markers that must be in accordance with the law and intended for all organizations. The increasing use of IT in any organizations had widespread the free access of private information to the unauthorized. To assess the company’s unauthorized computer network is sometimes valid and sometimes not as authorities do not deal with it as such; however, assessing another personnel file is another story because these are usually dealt as private company records. Almost every state in the United States and all parts of the world viewed this unauthorized use as a criminal act, but in California â€Å"an employee might use an employer’s computer service for his or her own purpose without permission if no damage is caused and if the value of supplies and computer services does not exceed $100† (Oz 429). However, such exception is considered morally incorrect if the company itself expressly imposed a policy against such activity. To provide employees with clear guidelines, employers have developed a privacy policy posted in any conspicuous locations for emp loyee notifications and they are requested to sign as a proof that they are being informed. The policy states that â€Å"access or use of any equipment or data unless such access is work-related and required to fulfill that employees’ duties, or alter, damage, or destroy any company data or documentation† is forbidden, and anyone who violated this policy is considered to be criminally liable (Oz 429). This policy is a reminder that the company / customers / employees have their right to reckon their private files to be left confidential. Every company wanted to provide their customers a high work standard and keep their workplace safe, comfortable, and productive that is why it does not tolerate abusive used of alcohol and drugs among its employees. They are true anymore with the risk and liabilities brought by

Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin - Essay Example This is a clear indication that his theme of self-improvement emanates to as early as that tender age of twelve (Franklin 1899). Later on, it happened that he quarreled with his brother and he left for Philadelphia, where he got a job as a printer. This was not to last long and he left for London, where he met no fulfilling promises and then went back to Philadelphia, where he worked for a business (Leo 1986). Upon the death of the business owner, he left to establish his own printing firm, where his journal, the â€Å"Pennsylvania Gazette† when he stopped writing for the journal, he embarked on printing on it â€Å"Father Abraham’s sermon† the greatest of his works that rose him to the hall of fame, he belongs to till today (Franklin 1899). All this are illustrations of his theme of self- improvement, in that from the point he quarreled with his brother, he proceeded to seek ways to earn a living, working under different people in different fields. He emerges as a positive minded personality who struggled to make ends meet with a dream that never died to excel in the writing and publishing field (Stuber 1790). By stating, that he emerged from a state of poverty to that of affluence and fame in his autobiography further indicates the strength of the theme of self-improvement in his life (Leo 1986). He describes through his reference to personal pride that he upheld, which for some reasons created a room for change and improvements that enabled him achieve the success that he did achieved during his life time (Franklin 1899). According to him, self-pride is not evil, since it is the seed planted to reap improvements and advances in personal character traits, which are Congruent with the achievement of success. During his years at grammar school at a tender age of eight, he proved to be an excellent student. Through self-improvement, he managed to rise his position from that at the middle of the class performance to be the head of the class. This saw him moved to the next class, before his duration for the first class was over. Unfortunately, this was not long lasting and he was moved out of school to support his father’s business at the age of ten (Franklin 1899). In recounting his events, he had a liking for seafarer that his father so much opposed. However, he did all he could in his means to become an excellent one, leading the other boys. All this demonstrates the spirit of self-improvement that developed at a very tender age. Worth noting is the fact that in his family, inheritance was passed on to the first son, and thus being the last one, the hopes of any good life were extinguished by such default (Stuber 1790). More of his self-improvement theme is discovered when he states that he had not a good access to books while working under his brother, but he could borrow one in the evening, read it the whole night and return it early morning to avoid the book being noticed missing (Leo 1986). His self-improve ment theme, as advanced by his autobiography, he came up with a scheme to leave a legacy. This he did by setting up an academy, which later translated to a university. This alone was not enough, so he went on to founding the â€Å"American Philosophical Society.† The intentions of this was to provide the other scientific

Prepare a persuasive speech on the importance of alcoholism Essay

Prepare a persuasive speech on the importance of alcoholism prevention. your audience is a group of 20 high school students and their parents - Essay Example Chemical properties of alcohol are such that it affects your Central Nervous System (CNS) which includes the â€Å"brain.† Alcohol in your blood decreases the brain activity and depresses the expression of certain anxieties. As a result, you feel better about yourself and less worried. Therefore, you feel more socially skilled. Even the physicians prescribe CNS depressants such as alcohol to treat anxiety, muscle tension, pain, insomnia and panic attacks. There are many other drugs that have similar effects to alcohol, example: narcotics, barbiturates, benzodiazepines and chloral hydrate. We need to understand why people crave for alcohol. It is not merely a person’s fault. Alcohol has the â€Å"addicting effect† on human beings due to its chemical properties. And also, individuals under the influence are usually violent. You may feel tough after you have had a beer. But the sad truth is â€Å"alcohol is controlling you†, not the other way around. Intoxicated individuals may neglect and abuse children, harm women and disabled or put their lives at risk. In many cases people have confessed that they were under the influence when behaving violently. Alcohol related violence is a severe social problem in the world. Over 100,000 students of age 18 to 24 are victims of alcohol-related sexual assault or rape. Another 400,000 students had unprotected sex while too intoxicated to know if they consented to having sex. If you are not concerned about the society at large you should be concerned about your own well being. Alcohol impairs your judgment, creates beer bellies and leads to hangovers. One day you might wake up from hangover to find out that you are a teenage mother, single parent, need an abortion, having AIDS or sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Alcohol consumption weakens the immune system. In other words alcoholics are more likely to die from AIDS, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) compared to the

Source Question on Public Health Reform 1832-1853 Essay Example for Free

Source Question on Public Health Reform 1832-1853 Essay Sources B and C mainly provide similar evidence for attitudes towards Public Health and the dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849 because they both agree that public health in certain areas were much worse than those which were affected by the new Public Health Act. This is clear because Source B refers to, â€Å"We live in muck and filthe† and Source C refers to, â€Å"We also want sewers and an ample supply of water†. They also both agree that there are dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849 for Source B refers to, â€Å"if the Cholera comes lord help us† and in Source C, the author claims that, â€Å"without which no efficient sanitary measures can be carried out†, which is referring to the anxiety of disease. Both Sources B and C offer similar evidence because they are both written for the same cause. Sources B and C were both written by people who wanted the Public Health Act to affect their local community due to the poor conditions and danger of disease in their areas. They are also both written at very similar dates, Source B having been written in 1848 and Source C having been written in 1849. This is important because public health at this time was known to be dreadful and both give a good insight towards the dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849. They also both have the same purpose, for they were written for the intention of having the Public Health Act applied to their local areas (both signed by other locals who wanted the Act enforced), meaning that similar evidence would be involved in inquiring for the act. These similarities make Source C more valuable as evidence for attitudes towards Public Health and the dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849 because the petition in Source C was signed by 164 people, whereas Source B was signed by 54 people. However, there are some differences between Sources B and C as evidence for attitudes towards Public Health and the dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849. Firstly, both sources provide different evidence, for Source B gives a greater sense of desperation and fear, whereas Source C does not give as much of a sense of desperation. This can be seen when Source B refers to, â€Å"livin in a wilderness so far as the rest of London knows anything of us† whereas Source C only states that, â€Å"Unlike elsewhere there appears to be a very favourable feeling towards to its (the Public Health Act) adoption†. The sources are also written very differently. Source B is written with many spelling mistakes and bad grammar, whereas Source C is written in a more formal tone without any spelling mistakes or bad grammar The main reason why the sources offer different evidence is because they are written by two people from very different backgrounds. Source B is written by someone who has clearly not been educated very well as the letter is written in poor English. This makes the source more valuable as evidence for the attitudes towards Public Health and the dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849 because it comes from someone who sounds more desperate. Whereas, Source C is written by an active local Poor Law Guardian a middle class man or above, and has been educated. Due to the tone being formal, desperation for the Public Health Act does not come through as clearly as Source B therefore it is not as valuable evidence for the attitudes towards Public Health and the dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849. Source B offers more useful evidence the Source C because not only does it describe conditions of the public health problems and bring across the anxiety of an outbreak of disease in 1849, but also presents more of a sense of desperation due to the illiteracy of the author, for example, â€Å"The stenche of their gully hole is disgustin We all of us suffer and numbers are ill†. Source B is also reliable because it comes from someone who is clearly more desperate for better public health conditions due to the tone. Source C is just as reliable for a ‘Board’ was secured and he was assisted by Chadwick’s favoured engineer. Overall, Source B is more useful than Source C as evidence for attitudes towards Public Health and the dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849 because it describes the public health conditions of his area in greater detail than Source C, and, his evidence is typical to the conditions described at the time. However, together, they provide valuable evidence because both corroborate that public health at the time was appalling and that there were dangers of an outbreak of disease in 1849.

Integrity and Values Essay Example for Free

Integrity and Values Essay Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. Barbara Killinger offers a traditional definition: Integrity is a personal choice, an uncompromising and predictably consistent commitment to honour moral, ethical, spiritual and artistic values and principles. [1] In ethics, integrity is regarded[by whom? ] as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy For other uses, see Integrity (disambiguation) Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. Barbara Killinger offers a traditional definition: Integrity is a personal choice, an uncompromising and predictably consistent commitment to honour moral, ethical, spiritual and artistic values and principles. [1] In ethics, integrity is regarded[by whom? ] as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of ones actions. Integrity can stand in opposition tohypocrisy,[2] in that judging with the standards of integrity involves regarding internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding within themselves apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. The word integrity stems from the Latin adjectiveinteger (whole, complete). [3] In this context, integrity is the inner sense of wholeness deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency ofcharacter. As such, one may judge that others have integrity to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold. A value systems abstraction depth and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with observation. A value system may evolve over time[4] while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies. [5] ones actions. Integrity can For other uses, see Integrity (disambiguation) Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. Barbara Killinger offers a traditional definition: Integrity is a personal choice, an uncompromising and predictably consistent commitment to honour moral, ethical, spiritual and artistic values and principles. [1] In ethics, integrity is regarded[by whom? ] as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of ones actions. Integrity can stand in opposition tohypocrisy,[2] in that judging with the standards of integrity involves regarding internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding within themselves apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. The word integrity stems from the Latin adjectiveinteger (whole, complete). [3] In this context, integrity is the inner sense of wholeness deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency ofcharacter. As such, one may judge that others have integrity to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold. A value systems abstraction depth and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with observation. A value system may evolve over time[4] while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies. [5] in opposition tohypocrisy,[2] in that judging with the standards of integrity involves regarding internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding within themselves apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. The word integrity stems from the Latin adjectiveinteger (whole, complete). [3] In this context, integrity is the inner sense of wholeness deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency ofcharacter. As such, one may judge that others have integrity to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold.

Direct to consumer advertising

Direct to consumer advertising DTCA of prescription drugs has increased enormously over the past decade in the United States and New Zealand, the 2 countries where it is legal. In 2005, more than $4.2 billion (US) was spent on DTCA in the United States, and Americans spent an average of 16 hours watching televised drug advertisements-far more time than they spent with family doctors. Mintzes (2009) Whereas advertising for non-prescription pharmaceuticals has been directed to consumers for decades, direct-to-consumer (DTC) advertising for prescription drugs is a relatively recent phenomenon. Regulation of pharmaceutical advertising varies significantly around the globe. Diehl et al (2008) Currently, direct-to-consumer advertising is only allowed in the US and New Zealand, but is banned throughout Europe and the rest of the world. Diehl et al (2008) Despite the ban, a number of pharmaceutical companies have already begun to conduct consumer-targeted campaigns in the EU, which comply with current restrictions (Hone Benson 2004). Like KSA Diehl et al (2008) In the next part, I will start with academic review of marketing communication tools and advertising in general. 2.2 Marketing Communications tools Marketing Communication Marketing communications as defined by Kotler (2007) are the means by which firms attempt to inform, persuade, and remind consumers directly or indirectly about the products and brands that they sell. They are considered the voice of the brand and by which the companies can build a relationship with customers. Marketing communications mix consists of six major modes of communication, and according to Kotler (2007) it can be classified to mass or personal communications. Mass communications are advertising, public relation and publicity, events, and sales promotion. While, personal communications are personal selling and direct marketing. In this paper, I will focus on advertising, public relations and publicity, and direct marketing. 2.2.1 Personal Selling Personal selling is a face to face interaction with one or more prospective purchasers for the purpose of making presentations, answering questions, and procuring orders. For example, sales presentation, sales meeting, and samples. 2.2.2 Direct Selling Direct marketing is the use of consumer-direct channels to reach and deliver goods and services to customer without using marketing middlemen. These channels include catalogs, mailing, telemarketing, TV shopping, e-mail, or internet to communicate directly with customers. 2.2.3 Sales Promotion Sales promotion is a variety of short term incentives to encourage trial or purchase of a product or service. For example, coupons, lotteries and gifts. On the contrary, sales promotion is the appropriate tool, if the intention is to deliver quicker results, thus, it could be thought of as a short term incentive to stimulate sales (Sandhusen, 2008), however, despite the fact that it has taken over advertising in recent years, if used more frequently it may has a damaging impact on the brand being promoted. 2.2.4 Events Events and experiences are company sponsored activities and programs designed to create daily or special brand related interactions. For example, sports, festivals, arts, factory tours, and company museum. These marketing communications must be integrated to deliver a consistent message and achieve the strategic positioning. 2.2.5 Public Relations and Publicity Public relation and publicity is a variety of programs designed to promote or protect a company image or its individual products. For example, press kits, speeches, seminars, annual reports, charitable donations, publications, community relations, lobbying, identity media, and company magazine. Public relations carries identical definition as that for advertising except for the part of being paid by the company, and on the contrary, public relation has a distinctive quality over advertising, which is being perceived as more credible (Sandhusen, 2008). The appeal of public relations is based on three distinctive qualities; high credibility than ads, ability to catch buyers off guard who prefer to avoid salespeople and advertisements, and the potential for dramatizing a company or a product. Many companies are turning to marketing public relations (MPR) to support corporate or product promotion and image making. The old name of MPR was publicity, which was seen as the task of securing editorial space as opposed to paid spaces in print and broadcast media to promote a product, service, idea, place, person, or organization. MPR goes beyond simple publicity and plays an important role in assisting in the launch of new products, assisting in repositioning of a mature product, building interest in a product category, influencing specific target groups, defending products that have encountered public problems, and building the corporate image in the way that reflects favourably on its products. 2.2.6 Advertising Advertising as claimed by Pickton Broderick (2006) is considered as the senior element of the marketing communications mix which defined as the use of paid mass media, by an identified sponsor, to deliver marketing communications to target audiences to persuade or influence an audience. Whereas media is considered as the carriers of message that it should include TV, radio, press, posters, direct mail and the internet. Advertising according to the media and the purpose can be classified into many types. For example, based on the type of media there are many types of advertisement like television ads, press and magazine advertisements, posters, radio, internet and out of home advertising which includes billboards, transit, street furniture, and alternative outdoor like cinema advertising, stadium advertising, and airport advertising (Wilson, et al., 2008). In addition to the previous classification, Eldridge (1958) argued that according to the purpose of the advertising there are three different kinds. The first one is the immediate action advertising like that of retail food advertising, special deals and coupon offers that push customers to take immediate actions. Whereas the second category is the awareness advertising like the announcements of a new product or model. As an example of this category is that of direct-to-consumer advertising of the pharmaceutical products, especially See your doctor campaigns that increase public awareness for new products or even refreshing the customer memory toward old product. Finally, the third category is the creation or change of an image advertising which is considered the most difficult category to be measured. For example, campaigns that made by oil companies to improve their images as environment pollutants through increasing their social responsibilities. There is some confusion between advertising, direct marketing, and public relation. (Tamer) Advertising has a lot of advantages. As mentioned in Leicester (2009) it can reach mass audiences through media and press. In addition it is able to reach mass audiences selectively like advertising in specialized magazines. Moreover, it has low unit cost, efficient and effective at reaching large audiences. In addition to the previous advantages, as claimed by Eechambadi and Naras V. (1994), it is expected to change perceptions, maintain awareness, reinforce brand loyalty, encourage switching, or influence frequency of purchase. After showing the different types and advantages of advertising in the next part I will present how advertising works. As mentioned by Miller, et al., (1998) over the past several decades most advertisers and academics believed that advertising primarily worked by changing consumer attitudes toward a brand through the (Awareness, Interest, Desire Action) AIDA model. This simple model says that awareness of a brand precedes interest, which in turn precedes desire and action. Thus, awareness plays a role in this theory, it is primarily a gatekeeper. However, Pickton Broderick (2006) argued that, advertising works through three ways. The first way considers the concepts of advertising as a strong or a weak force. Advertising seen as a strong force suggests that it has a direct and positive impact on sales through persuading people to buy, creating and building brands, differentiating between brands and increasing sales. While those see advertising as a weak force suggests that advertising works through maintaining brand values and defending market share, so its effect on sales is therefore less direct. A second way considers the concept of salience which is the sum total of brand attributes, not any single element, that creates a positive attitude towards the brand. The goal is not so much how well your brand is regarded, but how many consumers regard your brand well. In this way, brand shares are maintained. The third approach is a simple causal hierarchy of effects that claimed by Vakratsas and Ambler (1999) which is little changed in its essentials from the AIDA model. In this approach, consumers change their minds about a product, then they change their attitude, and then they act. In other words, the process begins with cognition, which translates to affect, which then translates to behaviour. The purpose of advertising in that model is primarily to drive trial by inserting the brand into the consumers head and keeping it there. To increase the advertising effectiveness, it is better to use advertising in more than one media to gain the advantages of each one. For example, the most effective see your doctor campaigns usually use more than one media, like TV, radio, posters, flyers and internet. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.3 Overview of DTCA . à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.3.1. Definition of DTCA . Direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) is the promotion of prescription drugs through newspaper, magazine, television and internet marketing. Drug companies also produce a range of other materials, including brochures and videos, that are available in doctors offices or designed to be given to patients by medical professionals or via patient groups. Vann(2010) The only two developed countries where DTCA is currently legal are the U.S. and New Zealand. While banned elsewhere, the drug industry is mounting major lobbying campaigns to have DTCA allowed in Europe and Canada. Vann(2010) DTCA advertising is just one strand in the marketing and PR efforts of drug companies to promote brand-name prescription drugs. Some aimed at potential consumers are video news releases for use in television news bulletins and programs. Vann(2010) Prescription drug advertising is very different from any other type of product advertising in that the product cannot be purchased without the cooperation of others (doctor, pharmacist, insurer, health maintenance organisations, etc.) and thus the purpose of advertising is different from most other product advertising. Becker et al, (2005) The advertisers want consumers to do one of the following; seek more information, talk to a doctor about the drug, talk to a pharmacist about the drug and tell family and friends about the drug. Basically, what consumers are expected to do after viewing prescription drug ads is to seek information and talk to others. Becker et al, (2005) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.3.2. A History of DTCA . The idea of DTCA started in the early 1980s when some of pharmaceutical companies decided to find a new model of promotion rather than the traditional one that rely on promotion for physician. They started firstly with public relations techniques rather than paid advertising as mentioned by Donohue and Julie (2006). From the 1950s to the early 1980s, no pharmaceutical companies were running product-specific ads in the mass media. Then, two product marketing campaigns broke with tradition and pursued a marketing strategy that depended on consumers taking a more active role in prescribing decisions. In 1981, Boots pharmaceuticals used print and television ads to promote Rufen, a prescription pain reliever. The marketing strategy was to position Rufen as a cheaper alternative to the leading brand. Donohue and Julie (2006) In the early 1980s most pharmaceutical companies avoided DTCA of prescription drugs, according to a survey conducted in 1984 of pharmaceutical marketing executives. Pharmaceutical executives argued that DTCA would hurt the doctor-patient relationship, confuse an unsophisticated public, and lead to higher drug costs. Donohue and Julie (2006) The increased use of DTCA in the early 1990s may have been related to the introduction of lifestyle drugs for which no market yet existed like hair restoration products or those requiring consumers to self-identify, either because physicians feel uncomfortable discussing the product like drugs that treat erectile dysfunction. Donohue and Julie (2006) In 1997, The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) relaxed its rules on mass media advertising for prescription drugs. This action made it easier for pharmaceutical companies to promote their products in 30- or 60-second TV ads without giving detailed medical information on the indications, potential side effects, or proper use. Findlay and Steven (2002) Pharmaceutical firms, which in 1984 had feared the impact of DTCA on the doctor-patient relationship, now argued that prescription drug advertising empowered consumers. The president of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America stated, Direct-to-consumer advertising is an excellent way to meet the growing demand for medical information, empowering consumers by educating them about health conditions and possible treatments. Donohue and Julie (2006) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.3.3. Why pharmaceutical companies might use DTCA?. There are several factors in the prescription drug industry that might induce manufacturers to advertise directly to consumers. In general, certain characteristics of the market, the disease to be treated, the stage of the product life cycle (PLC) and the drug treatment itself. Sheffet et al, (1990) As the size of the potential market increases, so does the probability that manufacturers will advertise to medical professionals and consumers, because the larger the potential market for a drug treatment, the lower the cost per treatment to advertise. For example, the current broadcasting and print media advertising for ulcer treatments is aimed at a large potential market. In the case of a drug to treat a disease that afflicts far fewer people (e.g., hemophilia), it is unlikely that DTC advertising would be used because of the high cost of reaching the relatively small number of people in that market. Sheffet et al, (1990) The stage of the PLC will also influence the likelihood that a firm will participate in DTC advertising. In a mature product category, a function of advertising is to allow a firm to differentiate its product from competing brands. Early in the PLC, advertising is more likely to increase the relative size of the total market. A unique characteristic of the prescription drug industry is that the stages of the PLC are significantly dictated by the patent structure. A firm whose brand is protected by a patent has a greater incentive to increase the total market size than a firm whose product is competing in a stable, mature market. Sheffet et al, (1990) The nature of the disease and the frequency of treatment will also affect the attractiveness of DTC advertising for a particular drug. For example, a disease that requires constant long-term medication (e.g., Dilantin for epilepsy), will have the same patient population in the market for years. Sheffet et al, (1990) 2.4 The role of DTC advertising in the healthcare system.. 2.4.1 push/pull strategic mix:.. The introduction of DTC advertising brought the consumer into the brand stimulation equation, eroding some of the physicians market control and giving prescription drug manufacturers more control of the marketplace. Where once the manufacturer was at the total mercy of the physician, DTC advertising put the prescription drug manufacturer in a position to exert some influence in the patient-doctor relationship. Becker et al, (2005) pharmaceutical industry has traditionally used a push strategy to promote their products but report that there has been a break from this traditional push strategy to a more aggressive pull strategy. Parker et al, (2003) Therefore, pharmaceutical companies advertising shifted from a push promotion strategy to a combination of a push/pull strategic mix. Becker et al, (2005) 2.4.2 Doctor-Patient Relationship. During the past two decades, there has been an irreversible change in the nature of the doctor-patient relationship. Patients are seeking much more medical information and are actively participating in decisions affecting their health. Wolfe (2002) in terms of the impacts on doctor-patient relationships, on the positive side, Peyrot, Alperstein, Van Doren, and Poli (1998) found that media exposure and awareness of DTCA appeared to be associated with higher consumer drug knowledge and greater levels of discussion with physicians regarding treatment, this leading to strengthening of the relationship between doctor and patients (Bonaccorso and Sturchio, 2002). Reast et al, (2008) Conversely, Mechanic (1996), in line with prior research by Perri and Nelson (1987), took the position that the relationship between doctor and patient would be undermined by the increasing consumerization of the doctor-patient relationship, and various studies have pointed to potential conflicts in the relationship between doctor and patient, with undue pressure on doctors to prescribe advertised drugs (Foley and Gross, 2000; Mintzes et al, 2002; Prince, 2003), and patients considering switching doctors if specific drug requests are denied (Kravitz, 2000). Reast et al, (2008) The irritation felt by many physicians when patients approach them after seeing a direct-to-consumer advertisement may derive from the fact that such advertisements, with their powerful, emotion-arousing images and frequently unbalanced information on safety and effectiveness, mislead patients into believing that drugs are better than they actually are. Wolfe (2002) This puts physicians in a quandary, facing 3 conflicting ethical obligations. First, physicians aim to do no harm. Second, physicians seek to maintain and develop a strong doctor-patient relationship because it enhances future care and health outcomes, in addition to patient satisfaction. Third, physicians have a duty to ensure fair allocation of health care resources and avoid wasteful expenditure. Murray et al, (2003) We found that physicians find responding to inappropriate requests time-consuming and that they often seem to acquiesce to such requests as long as the patient is not harmed. Furthermore, more doctors perceive the effect on the relationship as beneficial than harmful, but this is dependent on physicians doing what the patient wants. Murray et al, (2003) DTCA can have good and bad effects on quality of care, the doctor-patient relationship, and health service utilization. The benefits might be maximized, and the harms minimized, by increasing the accuracy of information in advertisements; enhancing physicians communication and negotiation skills; and encouraging patients to respect physicians clinical expertise. Murray et al, (2003) 2.4.3 Do Ads Really Drive Pharmaceutical Sales?. The reviewed research finds that DTCA leads to increased demand for the advertised drug. Atherly and Rubin (2009) Evidence suggests that direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs increases pharmaceutical sales and helps to avert underuse of medicines and leads to potential overuse. Donohue, Cevasco and Rosenthal (2007) 2.5 Overview of the global doctors` attitude toward DTCA Increasingly consistent US, New Zealand and UK medical opinion While a USA study prior to the boom in DTCA had found that physicians were broadly supportive of advertising to consumers (Petroshius et al. 1995), more recent evidence with very few contradictions now suggests that many USA physicians are unhappy with DTCA (Reast et al., 2004). The picture within New Zealand, on balance, cautiously supported the continuation of DTC advertising (Reast et al., 2004). UK physicians also as mentioned by Reast et al., (2004) opposed to the introduction of DTCA, which they feel is unethical, and is likely to have various negative impacts. Concern was expressed about DTCA causing damage to physicians` relationship with pharmaceutical companies, and perhaps more importantly, damage to their relationship with patients (Reast et al., 2004). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.5.1 The USA Situation Medical opinion towards DTC within the USA, having apparently been quite supportive prior to the rapid expansion of DTC in the mid- 1990s (Petroshius et al. 1995), appears now to be hardening. A US study, published in the Journal of Family Practice in 1997, found that 80% of surveyed members of the American Academy of Family Physicians believed that DTC was not a good idea and 84% expressed negative feelings about television DTC advertising (Mitka 2003). In contrast, the FDA study, a survey of 500 general practitioners (GPs) and hospital doctors, found a much more positive view of DTC advertising, whereby 37% said the overall impact of DTC advertising on their patients and practice had a somewhat positive effect, 28% said that there was no effect at all, and 27% said that DTC advertising had a somewhat negative effect. Only 3% felt it had a very positive effect and 5% said it had a very negative effect (Thomaselli 2003). Reast et al, (2004) There have been a substantial number of published studies on DTCA in the USA. These include a Harvard Medical School report by Weissman et al. (2004). This national study of 643 physicians on events where patients discussed advertised drugs found both positive and negative effects on patients and physician practices. Positive effects were: improved communication (67%), patient education (70%) and improved compliance (46%). Negative effects included: patients led to seek unnecessary treatments (80%) and a perceived lack of balance in risk/benefits (80%). Auton and Frank (2006) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.5.2 The New Zealand and Australia Situation In New Zealand also, opposition to DTC remains high among physicians, with recent high-profile reports from New Zealands top medical schools condemning the practice (Scrip 2003). Reast et al, (2004) Despite this, a review of physician opinion conducted by the New Zealand Ministry of Health in 2001 (Hoek Gendall 2002) found that doctors` groups acknowledged both the benefits and issues associated with DTC advertising. A qualitative research study conducted in New Zealand by Maubach and Hoek (2005) suggests that doctors views are complex. Doctors were found to have serious concerns about DTCA but also saw some benefits from it. Respondents viewed favourably DTCAs ability to increase awareness of certain medical conditions. However, there were concerns about the poor level of information provided and many doctors spent time dispelling incorrect patient perceptions. There was also concern that risk information was not felt to be balanced. The majority did not support a ban on DTCA but nearly all considered that stricter regulation was required. Auton and Frank (2006) A study of attitudes towards DTCA in Australia by Miller and Waller (2004) found that four factors were important: information, quality, credibility and price. Auton and Frank (2006) DTCA is banned in Australia but the pharmaceutical industry is still lobbying to have the ban lifted, despite the strong opposition of doctors and consumer groups. Auton and Frank (2006) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.5.3 The European Situation .. There is little published quantitative research concerning the attitudes towards DTC of European health professionals, but Reast and Carson (2000) conducted a rare survey into UK physician opinion towards DTC soon after the start of generic see your doctor campaigns in Europe, in 1999. The exploratory study of 68 GPs and hospital doctors, a partial replication of the USA study by Petroshius et al. (1995), found UK physicians highly opposed to the concept and likely impacts of DTC advertising, 62% disagreeing with the ethics of DTC advertising, and 72% opposing the introduction of DTC advertising in Europe. Seeing certain benefits of a limited introduction of DTC communication, the European Commission presented plans to the European Parliament in November 2002, allowing further information on three chronic disease conditions (Aids, diabetes, and asthma) to pass directly to consumers. While the European Commission plans were rejected, educational see your doctor campaigns, carrying the manufacturers name and logo, but not the product brand name, are still allowed. Reast et al, (2004) In the UK disease-awareness campaigns are being mounted by pharmaceutical companies in conjunction with patient organisations through sponsorship and grants which recognises UK and EU law prohibiting pharmaceutical companies undertaking activity which is deemed to be promoting a prescription-only medicine to the public. Auton and Frank (2006) Pfizer launched a  £30 million Europe-wide male impotence disease-awareness campaign, including sponsorship of a St Valentine.s Day radio and press campaign, in conjunction with the Impotence Association. Reast et al, (2004) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 2.5.4 The Middle East Situation .. Actually, after a lot of research, I did not find any articles talk about DTCA in Middle East. DTCA is banned in Australia but the pharmaceutical industry is still lobbying to have the ban lifted, despite the strong opposition of doctors and consumer groups. Auton and Frank (2006) There is little published quantitative research concerning the attitudes towards DTC of European health professionals, but Reast and Carson (2000) conducted a rare survey into UK physician opinion towards DTC soon after the start of generic see your doctor campaigns in Europe, in 1999. 2.6 Critical views of doctors attitudes towards DTCA . Recent surveys of physicians indicate that even though many still oppose the practice of DTCA in general, they also point to some positive effects. Donohue and Julie (2006) 2.6.1 Why DTCA is viewed as positive by doctors? . Supporters claim that DTC advertising has an educational value. It may cause consumers to seek advice on diseases or problems that have been previously undiagnosed, thus creating a more informed consumer (Parker et al, 2003). In addition, it can play an important role in improving healthcare by giving consumers the information they need to discuss medical symptoms and treatment options with their doctors. Becker et al, (2005) Moreover, DTCA is necessary to provide pharmaceutical firms with an incentive to develop prescription drugs to treat new ailments, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), or more effective treatments for established ailments and conditions. Research and development costs are high, but pharmaceutical firms have only a limited amount of time in which their prescription drugs are patent-protected. As regulatory approval times have lengthened, the amount of time that pharmaceutical firms have to recoup their research and development costs before being faced with competition from generic versions of their drugs has decreased (Meek 2001). Therefore, pharmaceutical firms believe that creating consumer awareness of patent-protected prescription drugs is the quickest way to increase sales. Main et al, (2004) Supporters further claim that DTC advertising will lead to improved products and lower prices as pharmaceutical firms compete for consumer patronage in the open market. In this view, more knowledgeable consumers will select the best treatment available; thus, bans on DTC advertising deprive consumers of information needed to make the best choice (Meek 2001). Main et al, (2004) Furthermore, as mentioned by Auton and Frank (2006), a national study of 643 physicians found positive effects were: improved communication (67%), patient education (70%) and improved compliance (46%). Finally, to summarize the benefits of DTCA, the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA) in 2005 announced approval of new industry guidelines for DTC advertising. The fourteen principles outlined in these guidelines are based on the premise that: DTC advertising of prescription medicines can benefit the public health by increasing awareness about diseases, educating patients about treatment options, motivating patients to contact their physicians and engage in a dialogue about health concerns, increasing the likelihood that patients will receive appropriate care for conditions that are frequently under-diagnosed and under-treated, and encouraging compliance with prescription drug treatment regimens. Royne and Myers (2008) 2.6.2 Why DTCA is viewed as negative by doctors? . Critics of DTC advertising maintain that prescription drugs differ from other products and, therefore, should not be advertised in a similar way to increase consumption. Instead of being sold to increase profits, prescription drugs should be sold only when a doctor believes the medication will be the best way to reduce a patients suffering (Findlay 2001). In addition, DTCA intrudes into the doctor-patient relationship and confuses patients by representing promotional messages as educational (Wolfe 2002). Further, opponents believe that DTC advertising increases demand for more expensive medications and medicalizes normal human experience (Mintzes 2002), rather than providing consumers with information needed to make better health-care decisions. Critics also contend that the increase in patient requests for advertised medications (Peyrot et al. 1998) leads to preference toward branded, advertised prescriptions over more affordable and effective treatments (Dyer 2002; Findlay 2002). Some also argue that such advertising is inappropriate because patients are not in a position to diagnose conditions or judge the relative safety, effectiveness and appropriateness of alternative treatments. This practice can lead to prescription drug misuse and abuse (Becker et al, 2005). In addition, evidence on clinical outcomes is often inadequate when drugs first come on to the market, at times leading to false impressions. COX 2 inhibitors (Vioxx), for example, were widely believed to be safer than other non-steroidal anti-inflammatories when first launched. An assessment of the full experience of serious adverse events in comparative trials suggests the contrary. Mintzes and Barbara (2002)

The Peoples Republic of Power Essay -- Literary Analysis

The essay under critical analysis is entitled, â€Å"Philadelphia’s Radical Caucus That Propelled Pennsylvania to Independence and Democracy,† written by Gary B. Nash. This analytical essay consumes the fourth chapter of the book Revolutionary Founders: Rebels, Radicals, and Reformers in the Making of the Nation, edited by Alfred F. Young, Gary B. Nash, and Ray Raphael. His essay, along with the twenty-one other accounts in the book depicting lesser-known individuals, whose contributions in securing independence from Great Britain and creating a new government in America rival that of the nation’s more notorious and beloved founders, such as Thomas Jefferson or James Madison. Dr. Nash focuses his efforts on Philadelphia’s Radical Caucus of the 1770’s and 80’s and the lasting influences of the 1776 constitution it created within American politics as well as several nations around the world. Within his analysis and interpretation of Pennsy lvanian politics during the American Revolution, Dr. Nash utilizes a pro-whiggish, radically sympathetic stance to assert the Radical Caucus’ remarkable ability to gain support from and bestow power upon the common working man, take political power from conservatives within Pennsylvania’s public offices, and revolutionize democratic thought through their landmark reformations of the state’s constitution. Respecting the fact that Dr. Nash’s position on this subject required extensive research through first hand accounts, pamphlets, newspapers and the analysis of countless preserved records, indicates that the account he has given is very credible. Complying with his presentation of facts and the significance of the topic within early American history has prevented a well-rounded counter-argument ... ...ailable. Charles A. Beard argues this point in his book An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States, stating that â€Å"The Constitution was essentially an economic document based upon the concept that the fundamental private rights of property are anterior to government and morally beyond the reach of popular majorities.† Works Cited Beard, Charles A. An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. New York: Dover, 2004(1913). Print. Lynd, Staughton, and David Waldstreicher. "â€Å"Free Trade, Sovereignty, and Slavery: Toward an Economic Interpretation of American Independence." William and Mary Quarterly (October 2011): 597-656. Print. Young, Alfred Fabian, Gary B. Nash, and Ray Raphael. Revolutionary Founders: Rebels, Radicals, and Reformers in the Making of the Nation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. Print.

Euthanasia is an Individual Decision :: Euthanasia Physician Assisted Suicide

Euthanasia is an Individual Decision According to the American Heritage Dictionary, euthanasia is defined as "the act or practice of ending the life of an individual suffering from a terminal illness or an incurable condition, as by lethal injection or the suspension of extraordinary medical treatment." Not everyone agrees with this definition. I have always believed that euthanasia was the human choice or nonchoice of ending another person's life because of the excruciating pain they are suffering due to an incurable disease. Some disciplines think that euthanasia should never be an option no matter what the situation. While other disciplines question the validity of the actions of the person helping with the actual euthanasia. Still others support euthanasia in all forms as long as it is performed for the sake of the sufferer. There are three types of euthanasia; voluntary active euthanasia, passive euthanasia and physician assisted suicide. In all cases where euthanasia is used the patient must be suffering from an incurable, fatal disease. Voluntary active euthanasia is a "deliberate intervention" by an individual other than the patient, with the pure intention of termination that patient's life. (Gula, 501) Passive euthanasia takes place when the attending physician decides to discontinue therapy or treatment that would help to keep the patient alive, basically letting the patient die without the benefit of medicine or medical procedures. Finally, physician assisted suicide, or PAS, is where a physician "helps to bring on the patient's death by providing the means to do it or by giving the necessary information on how to do it, but the patient performs the lethal act" (Gula, 501-502). Each of these methods is a form of euthanasia or mercy killing but each is different in the amount of involv ement by the physician. This paper will explore views from various disciplines about all three types of euthanasia. According to the Catholic religion, euthanasia, as well as abortion and contraception, are sins against God and the Church. Pope John Paul Ii wrote and encyclical letter that was issued at the Vatican in March 1995. Pope John Paul II shared his views on the topics of euthanasia, contraception and abortion in this very opinionated statement.

The Vietnam War Essay -- essays research papers

This essay is about talking and analysing the Vietnam War. This civil war was between the Communist North and the Democratic South because of the fear of communism spreading to the South. Other Western countries also helped in this war because they too were afraid of communism spreading, and so they sent money and troops to aid South Vietnam. Some of these countries included America, Australia, and New Zealand. This war was one of the most divisive events in history and I am going to talk about why this is so. For most of Vietnam?s history the country has been under foreign rule, primarily by the Chinese. Domination of the region by the French began in 1860, and by the late 19th century they had colonised a number of places around the Gulf of Tonkin. In World War II, however, the Japanese government took control of much of the area, and set up a puppet regime that was eventually forced out by the Vietnamese at the end of the war in 1945. After the war, France fought hard to regain their former territories in the region, but because they had a poorly organized army and little determination amongst its troops, their plans soon collapsed. The North Vietnamese tried to take over the government in South Vietnam between 1955 and 1960, and in 1964, with the help of China and Russia, North Vietnam began a large scale drive to conquer the whole country. This is when the Vietnam War really began. The Vietnam War started around the 1950?s, a time when communism was gradually spreading across the world. By 1954, Vietnam was separated into two parts, the democratic South Vietnam and the communist North Vietnam. Soon violence began to break out and tensions began to rise even more between the two. This was because the South was scared ... ...help for the stress they felt. It was only on the 3rd of October 1987, fifteen years after the veterans had returned from the war, that a ?Welcome Home? parade was finally held for them. This was when attitudes towards the people who had participated in the unpopular war began to change. Today Vietnam veterans can enjoy respect coming from their community but many still feel the bitterness over the impact the war had had on their lives. In conclusion, we can say that the Vietnam War was one of the most violent and divisive wars of all times. This battle of ideology and false fear of being dominated by principles dissimilar to the Western capitalist value system, led to the death of many innocent people and destruction of property that could have been spared otherwise, with a bit of benevolence in the heart of the politicians who were responsible for the war.

Life of William Wordsworth Essay

William Wordsworth is considered one of the greatest poets during the English Romantic Period. He is also considered, only next to Shakespeare, one of the greatest sonneteers. There are some historians that even believe that William Wordsworth, along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the Romantic Period. This statement has been debated between historians, but one thing that they do agree on is, William Wordsworth shaped the literary era. The Romantic Period was a time that allowed artistic freedom. The early 60’s is the closest period of time that can be related to this time in history. The creativity and experimentation of artists, poets, and ordinary people was beginning to bloom. That was a period of great change. The Classical Period was more controlling. There were strict laws of the Classical Period slowly began to change as Romanticism moved away from such control. The Romantic Period was also a movement of literary and intellectual thinking. Romanticism emphasized on imagination, freedom of feelings, and was mostly connected within the visual arts, music, and literature. Imagination was more important than logic. This period is mostly associated with the arts and poets like William Wordsworth. William Wordsworth, the most significant poet of the English Romantic Period, was greatly influenced as a writer by his childhood, love of nature, and his many relationships. According to Judith W. Page, William Wordsworth was the † central poet of his age† (Gale 1). William Wordsworth’s poetry was drawn from his amazing memory, and was mostly based on Nature, people he watched, and personal experiences. Leslie Brisman said of Wordsworth, â€Å"To call William Wordsworth a â€Å"Memory Poet† is to note how he substitutes personal memories for other assurances of continuity, natural or divine. (276-277). Because each encounter partly transmits and partly reformulates a myth of origins, William Wordsworth’s work seems easy to read, when in fact, he may be the most difficult of the English Poets (278). Many of his poems were based on his own life and his interpretation of it. The memories and encounters that William Wordsworth drew from, started when he was just a small boy. William Wordsworth was born at Cockermouth, Cumberland on April 7, 1770. He was the second of five children. His father was an attorney which allowed them to live a generous life style. At home is where he learned to appreciate poetry. It was his father that gave him the gift of memory, by requiring Wordsworth to memorize poems or parts of poems, it help developed his powerful memory. Relying on his memory became the very basis of his art (Anderson 9). Growing up in the Lake District is where Wordsworth gained his early appreciation for the beauty of nature. The river that he would play in at the age of five, also had influenced his writing (Gale 2). He loved the countryside and the freedom he had to roam for long periods of time. During this time, his imagination began to bloom. Although he enjoyed periods of solitude, he was adventurous, imaginative, and strong-minded (Aubrey 2). To all accounts, he had the perfect childhood till his mother passed away in March of 1778. He and his brothers were sent to a school at Hawkshead and his sister, Dorothy, was sent to live at Halifax. During his time at school, he only returned home for the holidays. He was well educated and prospered. When his father passed away he and his brothers spent the holidays with family who would patronized them and made them feel dependent (Watson 1577-1578). It was back at school at Hawkshead where he was cared for and his direction for poetry is nurtured by William Taylor, the Headmaster at Hawkshead Grammar School. The classes at Hawkshead were well ahead of other school and were unusual for that time (Purkis 22). According to F. R. Watson, â€Å"The Prelude† early years is about his childhood at Hawkshead and not Penrith (1577). Geoffrey Hartman writes that nature for William Wordsworth was not an â€Å"object† but a presence and a power; a motion and a spirit; not something to be worshiped and consumed, but always a guide leading beyond itself. Till 1804 Wordsworth thought that nature was guiding him. It was in 1804, that he discovers it was his imagination guiding him through nature. His imagination was his guide. This realization shakes him, but does not change his point of view (85-90). William Wordsworth love for nature started at an early age. Thomas Gale writes about Russell Noyes, who in his book William Wordsworth, recounted how Wordsworth credited the river with having influenced his poetic writing: â€Å"The sound of running water, he often felt, was almost part of his own being†¦ † (Gale 2). During his college years, he disliked his classes and felt he did not fit in. He wrote in the â€Å"The Prelude† that he believed that he was â€Å"not for that hour,/nor for that place. † (Aubrey 2). Although he did write the poem several poems while at school, one of the more famous one is â€Å"An Evening Walk†, which was meant for his sister, Dorothy. The year before graduation he went for a yearlong walking tour of France, the Alps, and Italy. Several of Wordsworth’s poems were created from this year long walk. His love of nature was magnified as he viewed glorious mountains, valleys, and other various landscapes. The walk through the Alps inspired â€Å"Descriptive Sketches†. Wordsworth stated â€Å"†¦. Nothing that I ever saw in nature left a more delightful impression on my mind than that which I have attempted, alas! how feebly, to convey to others in these lines†¦ † (George 10). The walking tour also gave way to the sixth book of â€Å"The Prelude†. The tour gave him some of his greater imaginative experiences of his life. Michelle Lee writes how â€Å"Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey,† were composed on a walking tour of the Wye River. He advocates the power of Nature. † (245) He returned to college and graduated in 1791, without honors. After graduation, he climbed Mount Snowdon, the highest peak in Great Britain. This was an important event that he later incorporates in the final book of â€Å"The Prelude†, giving it a great symbolic importance (Aubrey 2). After climbing Mt. Snowdon, William Wordsworth returned to France i n November of 1792. During this time, the French Revolution was at its peak. This was also the time when he met and befriended Republican soldier, Michael Beaupuy. With the growing friendship between the two men, Wordsworth enthusiastically embraced the revolutionary cause. This was also the time when he had an affair with Annette Vallon, who later gave birth to his daughter. These were times that began to change and shape Wordsworth and his poetry. In 1795 he meets William Godwin and is influenced by his ideas. This is also the year that he is reunited with his sister Dorothy, with whom he is very close to. The relationship between brother and sister is also cause for several of his poems. Two years later the encounter that changes the Romantic Period, according to some historians, occurs when Wordsworth meets Coleridge for the first time. William and his sister, settled at Al Foxden in Somerset to be near Coleridge. Margaret Drabble writes that this was a period of intense creativity for both poets. This period produced the Lyrical Ballads, which was a landmark in the history of English Romanticism. The three friends, William, Dorothy, and Coleridge traveled and explored. They made new friendships notably with Sir W. Scott, Sir G Beaumont, and De Quincey (1085). These were happy times and times when he was taken mental notes that would soon turn into poetry. It was the death of his brother in 1805 that changed his joy to sadness. The death of his brother inspired several poems including Elegiac Stanzas Suggested by a Picture of Peele Castle. With the passing of his brother, William suddenly becomes opposed to Romance and Realism (Hartman 91). His brother’s death was not the only death to inspire some of his greater works. The death of two of his children inspired his sonnet Surprised by Joy (Drabble 1085). William Wordsworth died in April 23, 1850. It was after his death, his sister published â€Å"The Prelude†, his greatest work. His life, from start to finish, is expressed in this great piece of literature. Throughout William Wordsworth life, he went through many changes. He married his long time family friend, Marry Hutchinson and had a family. His view on religion changed, along with his thoughts on the political society. William Wordsworth’s poems are all created from the memories of his life experiences and the visions of his travels. Through many friendships and emotional relationships, Wordsworth created some of the greatest poems of the Romantic Period. He was an influence on great poets such as; Samuel Coleridge, Lord Byron, Percy Shelley, and John Keats. There is still a question of whether or not William Wordsworth launched the Romantic Period, but there is no doubt that he shaped the literary work of that time. William Wordsworth, who was greatly influenced as a writer by his childhood, love of nature, and his many relationships, is by far the most significant poet of the English Romantic Period.

TRash

Individualistic cultures- cultures that tend to emphasize the Individual, his or her success and achievement, and a sense of â€Å"l†- In contrast to collectivist cultures that emphasize group membership and a sense of â€Å"we† 6. Collectivist cultures- cultures that tend to emphasize group membership and a sense of ‘*we† rather than in contract to individualistic cultures 7. Bilingual education- a curriculum for non-English-speaking and English-speaking students in which two languages are used for instruction and bicameralism is emphasized 8.Limited English proficient- a designation for students with limited ability to understand, read, or speak English and who have a first language other than English . Multiculturalism- a set of beliefs based on the importance of seeing the world from different cultural frames of reference and valuing the diversity of cultures in the global community 10. Ethnicity- a shared feeling of common identity that derives, in part , from a common ancestry, common values, and common experiences 11.Race- a concept of human variation used to distinguish people on the basis of biological traits and characteristics 12. Molesters- groups of people who share certain characteristics and are smaller In number than the majority of a population students and Hispanic, African American, etc students 4. Stereotyping- the process of attributing behavioral characteristics to all members of a group 15. Individual racism- the prejudicial belief that one's ethnic or racial group is superior to others 16.Institutional racism- institutional racism policies and practices, intentional or not, that result in racial inequities 17. Affrication schools- schools that focus on African American history and cultures for African Americans 18. Indian education act of 1972 and 1974 amendments- a federal law and subsequent amendment designed to provide direct educational assistance to Native American tribes and nations 19. Bicameral- the abili ty to function effectively in two or more linguistic and cultural groups 20.Multicultural education- education that provides equal educational opportunities to all students- regardless of socioeconomic status 21. Multicultural curriculum- a school curriculum that addresses the needs and backgrounds of all students regardless of their cultural identity and includes the cultural perspectives, or voices, of people who have previously been silent or marginalia 22. Sex role stereotyping- beliefs that subtly encourage males and females to inform to certain behavioral norms regardless of abilities and interests 23.Sex role colonization- socially expected behavior patterns conveyed to individuals on the basis of gender 24. Women's educational equity act- a 1974 federal law that guarantees equal educational opportunity for females 25. Gender bias- subtle bias or discrimination on the basis of gender; reduces the likelihood that the target of the bias will develop to the full extent of his or her capabilities 26. Gender-fair classroom- education that is free of bias or discrimination on the basis of gender.